Stereotypes of Aboriginal Australians and chronic alcoholism.
Stereotypes are cognitive beliefs concerning the characteristics, attributes and behaviours of members of specific groups. Negative stereotypes regarding race, gender and religion, amongst other categories, have received considerable attention from researchers due to the significant effect they have on an individual’s social perceptions and behaviours (Rowlands & Lee, 2006). There are numerous negative stereotypes held in Australian society. The various stereotypes of Aboriginal Australians are overwhelmingly negative (Hill & Augoustinos, 2001). The belief that Aboriginal Australians are chronic alcoholics is one particular stereotype of major concern (Donovan & Leivers, 1993). Stereotypes are formed and learned through social categorisation and in-group favouritism. They exist due to ignorance and mental short cuts which humans use to simplify the process of thinking about other people. This often involves large overgeneralisations of the beliefs and behaviour of people in negatively stereotyped groups, contributing to the formation of out-group homogeneity bias (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). The stereotype regarding Aboriginal Australians as chronic alcoholics is maintained through blaming societal problems on the stereotyped group consequently enhancing negative attitudes toward the group, as the scapegoat theory postulates, also by a perceived sharedness of belief in the stereotype when interacting with other human beings and via confirmation bias (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008; Clark & Kashima, 2003). Negative stereotypes can be changed by increasing knowledge and education about the minority group, by presenting and communicating stereotype disconfirming information, through consciously overriding cognitive stereotypical attitudes and by increasing exposure to and contact with the stereotyped group (Gee, Khalaf & McGarty, 2007; Hill & Augoustinos, 2001).
Alcohol is a reasonably recent introduction to the long history of stereotypical attitudes towards Aboriginal Australians (Kamien, 1996). Hunter (1992) reported that two commonly encountered beliefs of Australian people are that all Aboriginals are drinkers and that all Aboriginal drinkers are drunks. These stereotypes are incredibly dominant despite non-drinkers constituting a larger proportion of the Aboriginal population in Australia. In fact, prevalence figures indicate there are a higher percentage of Aboriginal non-drinkers than non-drinkers of the wider Australian population (Hunter, 1990). A major concern however, is that those Aboriginals who are drinkers are likely to be consuming alcohol at harmful levels. This is reflected in the high level of social, psychological and health related problems (Hunter, 1992).
How stereotypes are formed and why they exist
Stereotypes are formed as a result of social categorisation and in-group favouritism. Social categorisation refers to sorting individuals into groups on the basis of some common characteristic (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Following social categorisation, in-group favouritism generally occurs. In-group favouritism is the tendency to give preferential treatment or more positive attitudes towards one’s own group (Zebrowitz, Bronstad & Lee, 2007). This usually leads to advocating less favourable attitudes or stereotypes toward other groups. Accordingly, the majority of stereotypes are negative in nature (Augoustinos, Ahrens & Innes, 1994). Social categorisation allows for stereotypes to develop of the entire group rather than having to process large amounts of information concerning every individual. These stereotypes exist to represent the group as a whole as well as any individuals connected to the group. This process allows for stereotypes to be used as heuristics, or mental shortcuts, which limits the amount of effort and energy expenditure that is required to think about other people. Information can be obtained via the group stereotype rather than an individual encounter with each member (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Unfortunately, using stereotypes often results in large overgeneralisations of people within the group. Out-group homogeneity is a term that describes the tendency to overgeneralise and regard all members of other groups as having much the same characteristics, to a much greater extent than they actually do (Zebrowitz et al., 2007). This is precisely the problem facing Aboriginal Australians in that they are largely overgeneralised as chronic alcoholics. In truth, this label represents only a limited percentage of the group. Stereotypes may also exist to assist in topics of ignorance. People who have little, or no contact, with other groups have minimal information about them and may attempt to overcome their lack of knowledge by forming stereotypes (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). In short the existence of stereotypes simplifies the world and the process of thinking.
How stereotypes are maintained
Negative stereotypes are particularly durable (Pedersen, Griffiths, Contos & Bishop, 2000). A variety of factors contribute to their maintenance. The scapegoat theory is one possible contributor. It describes the inclination of human beings to hold minority groups responsible for a large amount of societal problems. This then contributes to further negative associations with the group (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). Aboriginal Australians are often blamed for violence, crime and poverty. People also have an inclination to only select and consider information that is consistent with the stereotype they have developed about a minority group. This tendency is referred to as a confirmation bias. Humans seek out information that affirms their stereotypical view of Aboriginals as alcoholics and often discredit or ignore information that suggests otherwise (Pedersen et al., 2000). A perceived sharedness of belief in the stereotype has also been found to influence the strength of negative attitudes. Clark and Kashima (2003) stated that knowing a social stereotype is shared or not shared with others affects attitudes and behaviours toward members of the stereotyped group. Expression through communication is the fundamental element in determining whether a stereotype is shared or not. People are much more likely to express stereotype relevant and consistent information, such as talking about alcoholism amongst Aboriginals which significantly contributes to the maintenance of the stereotype, if they are aware that the beliefs are shared with the individual or group they are communicating with (Lyons & Kashiam, 2006). Stereotypes are much easier to form and maintain than they are to change.
How to change a stereotype
Stereotypes are highly resistant to change (Hill & Augoustinos, 2001). However there are various means that can be employed to reduce negative stereotypes. This particular stereotype, viewing Aboriginal Australians as chronic alcoholics, could be changed by educating others and presenting stereotype disconfirming information to other humans. There are currently a number of specific programs developed in Australia designed to educate and provide information that increases awareness, understanding and knowledge in the community and that counteracts widely held false beliefs with reference to Aboriginal Australians and their culture (Gee et al., 2007). Such programs include The Applied Prejudice Reduction Intervention and The Cross-Cultural Awareness Program (Hill & Augoustinos, 2001).Surprisingly, their have been mixed opinions concerning the effectiveness of these programs. Typically results tend to suggest the programs reduce prejudice and negative stereotypes initially as well as significantly increasing knowledge (Gee et al., 2007). However, Hill and Augoustinos (2001) emphasize that three months after completion of such programs, whilst knowledge about the target group and related social issues remains considerably higher than baseline levels, negative stereotypes tend to increase once more. Positive communication is another tool that should be utilised in broadening the recognition of false beliefs that lead to stereotypes (Lyons & Kashima, 2006). The media and advertising could be made use of in portraying powerful messages to the public in order to generate discussion and modification of the misconception of Aboriginal Australians as chronic alcoholics (Donovan & Leivers, 1993). Conscious override, a method of mentally concentrating on overpowering embedded cognitive thoughts and attitudes toward stereotypes, should stem from this communication, and is a dominant additional mechanism in combating negative stereotypes (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008).The contact hypothesis also recognises the importance of providing stereotype disconfirming information.
The contact hypothesis aims to reduce ignorance and is the most influential social psychological method of decreasing prejudice and negative stereotypes (Hill & Augoustinos, 2001). It proposes that reduction of negative stereotypes can be achieved via intergroup contact. Stereotype disconfirming information can be observed and taken in by those involved in group interaction through increased exposure to Aboriginal Australians who do not represent chronic alcoholics (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008).Whilst contact and exposure to the stereotyped group has, under specific positive conditions, been demonstrated as a successful method of condensing negative stereotypes, it encompasses some limitations (Hill & Augoustinos, 2001). It is vital, for successful stereotype change, that the Aboriginals that are involved are perceived as being typical Aboriginal Australians and that the people in the group are of equal status of. If perceived as atypical Aboriginals the lack of alcoholism and chronic behaviours they exhibit will not be generalised to the broader stereotype of Aboriginal Australians, rather these individuals will be considered an exception to the rule (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008).
Conclusion
Aboriginal Australians are subject to a harsh and unrealistic stereotypes of being chronic alcoholics. Negative stereotypes, such as this, are formed through social categorisation and in-group favouritism. They exist to aid people in the processing of large amounts of information about the world and its people. The Aboriginal alcoholism stereotype is maintained through the continued ignorance, confirmation bias and the perceived sharedness of stereotypical beliefs. It is awfully difficult to counter negative stereotypes once they are developed. Education with stereotype disconfirming information, exposure and consciously overriding stereotypical thoughts, beliefs and attitudes are all possible methods that can be exercised in combating negative stereotypes. Aboriginal Australians are one minority group in Australian society that suffers from particularly cruel stereotypes. They remain subject to cultural exclusion (Hunter, 1990). The quality of life of many Australian people is being decreased solely due to their Aboriginal background. As a country known for its multiculturalism and freedom of expression, Australia and its people should be working to erase these debilitating stereotypes by any means possible.
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References
Augoustinos, M., Ahrens, C. & Innes, M. J. (1994). Stereotypes and prejudice: The Australian experience. British Journal of Social Psychology, 33(1), 125-141.
Baumeister, R. F. & Bushman, B. J. (2008). Social Psychology and Human Nature (1st ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Clark, A. E. & Kashima, Y. (2003). Stereotype maintenance in communication: How perceptions of stereotype sharedness contribute to the stereotype content of interpersonal communication. Australian Journal of Psychology, 144(1), 108-113.
Donovan, R J. & Leivers, S. (1993). Using paid advertising to modify racial stereotype beliefs. Public Opinion Quarterly Volume, 57, 205-218.
Gee, A., Khalaf, A. & McGarty, C. (2007). Using group-based interaction to change stereotypes about people with mental disorders. Australian Psychologist, 42(2), 98-105.
Hill, M. E. & Augoustinos, M. (2001). Stereotype change and prejudice reduction: Short- and long-term evaluation of a cross-cultural awareness programme. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 11, 243-262.
Hunter, E. (1992). Aboriginal alcohol use: A review of quantitative studies. Journal of Drug Issues, 22(3), 713-731.
Hunter, E. (1990). Images of violence in Aboriginal Australia. Aboriginal Law Bulletin, 2(46), 12-18.
Kamien, M. (1996). Alcohol and drug problems in minority groups. Drug and Alcohol Review, 5(1), 59-61.
Lyons, A. & Kashima, Y. (2006). Maintaining stereotypes in communication: Investigating memory biases and coherence-seeking in storytelling. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 9, 59-71.
Pedersen, A., Griffiths, B., Contos, N. & Bishop, B. (2000). Attitudes toward aboriginal Australians in cit and country settings. Australian Psychologist, 35(2), 109-117.
Rowlands, I. & Lee, C. (2006). Choosing to have children or choosing to be childfree: Australian students’ attitudes towards the decision of heterosexual and lesbian women. Australian Psychologist, 41(1), 55-59.
Zebrowitz, L.A., Bronstad, P.M. & Lee, h. K. (2007). The contribution of face familiarity to in-group favouritism and stereotyping. Social Cognition, 25(2), 306-339.
Appendices
Appendix A
Concept map of Stereotypes
Appendix B
Self Assessment of Blog
Theory and Research
I have used several theories relating to stereotypes in the blog. A brief description of each theory was given as I felt it was important to capture the key points from each theory. Due to the word limit however, I was unable to expand on many of these theories as much as I would have liked. I dedicated a large proportion of my research on how stereotypes can be changed as this was a main focus of the blog. I researched a decent amount of journal articles, books and internet sites to aid in writing the blog. However, further research could have been useful in the areas of forming and maintaining stereotypes.
Written Expression
APA style was adhered to for the most part. I found it difficult though. Because of the way we were to submit the blogs some formatting, such as indenting in the References, seems to have been lost. Headings throughout an essay are not generally APA format either but I used some headings to structure the paragraphs in a more reader friendly way. A concept map was also developed to illustrate the main points of the blog and show how the many different aspects of stereotypes link together. The concept map was intended to make the essay easier to follow.
Readability statistics showed a Flesch-Kincaid Grade level 12 and a Flesch Reading ease of 15.3. The Flesch reading ease is very low which suggests I need to work on the expression of my ideas in future. Perhaps reducing the length of my sentences and simplifying my words would be beneficial. In saying that, I felt a more simplified approach would not have captured the essence of many of the theories and ideas for this particular topic.
Online Engagement
The process of assessment and discussion using blogs is all very new to me. As I was not familiar with how it all worked I was unable to do many fancy postings. However, I was one of the people who started the discussion about the ghost of Rwanda documentary and was able to include a link to a useful webpage. I also began to make comments on other students’ blogs towards the end. My online engagement could definitely be improved and now that I am getting the hang of things that is what I intend to do. I plan to make more regular and valuable contributions to the discussions.
